Mulyawan77: 2010

Minggu, 26 September 2010

Tausyiah 2

Jika Musibah yang terjadi atas dirimu menjadi pelajaran bagimu, musibah itu sebenarnya kenikmatan bagimu. Namun Jika Engkau Tidak mampu mengambil pelajaran dari Musibah itu, sikapmu itulah merupakan musibah yang paling besar atasmu.

4 Hal Penting.

Ada 4 hal yang dapat mengangkat manusia ke derajat yang paling tinggi, meskipun ilmu dan amalnya sedikit, yaitu kesabaran, kesederhanaan, kemurahan hati dan akhlak yang baik. Itulah kesempurnaan iman.

Tausyiah 1

Siapa Saja yang tidak mau mendekat kepada Allah dalam kondisi yang lapang, maka akan dipaksa untuk segera mendekati-Nyadengan memberikan cobaan kepada hamba-Nya (hal ini meruapakan kasih sayang-Nya)

Selasa, 21 September 2010

Filosofi Charles Schulz

Anda tdk perlu menjawab smua pertanyaan, bacalah dan dapatkan pesan berharga.

1. Nama 5 org terkaya didunia
2. Nama 5 pemenang tropy
3. Nama 5 miss america terakhir
4. Nama 5 org pemenang nobel
5. Name 5 org pemenang Academy Award

Intinya adalah, tidak ada seorangpun dr kita yg masih mengingatnya. Tepuk tangan telah sirna, penghargaan beralih.
Pencapaian telah dilupakan.

Ada kuis lain, lihatlah bagaimana anda mengerjakan yg ini :

1. Nama 5 guru yg telah membantu anda dlm perjalanan sukses anda disekolah
2. Nama 5 teman yg membantu anda dlm waktu sulit
3. Nama 5 org yg mengajarkan anda sesuatu yg berharga
4. Nama 5 org yg membuatmu merasa dihargai dan spesial.
5. Nama 5 org yg anda sangat menikmati waktu bersamanya.

Lebih mudah?

Pelajarannya : org2 yg membuat perbedaan didalam hidupmu bukanlah orang2 yg memenangkan penghargaan, tapi mereka adalah org2 yg peduli dan mengasihi anda dgn tulus.
Jadi, hargailah setiap saat yg anda miliki bersama org2 tersebut.
Karna waktu selalu berjalan dan kita tdk pernah tau apa yg akan terjadi ketika org2 tersebut dipindahkan Tuhan dr sisi kita.

Ide-ide untuk Wirausaha

Sebenarnya masih banyak ide-ide usaha lain yang bisa menghasilkan uang,tetapi disini saya mencoba bagikan beberapa ide usaha untuk anda.Mari kita simak beberapa ide usaha berikut ini :

Makanan :

1. Membuat makanan ringan / snack dan kue .
2. Mengolah jantung pisang menjadi dendeng.
3. Membuat daging tiruan dari jamur tiram.
4. Mengolah makanan berkhasiat obat, misalnya keripik pace.
5. Membuat cake untuk pernikahan.
6. Mengolah cake untuk penderita diabetes.
7. Membuat aneka kue tradisional.
8. Membuat kue ulang tahun atau pernikahan.
9. Membuat donat dari kentang atau ketela.
10. Membuat nasi pepes dan atau nasi bakar.
11. Mengolah buah-buahan menjadi emping.
12. Membuat keripik jamur.
13. Mengolah bawang goreng instan.
14. Menjual mie mangkok.
15. Siomay kriuk.
16. Martabak / Terang bulan.
17. Bebek kremes.
18. Ayam kremes.
19. Bubur Kwang Tung.
20. Tempe penyet.

Minuman :

1. Es air tebu.
2. Teh bunga rosela.
3. Sirup limbah air kelapa.
4. Susu jagung.
5. Susu kedelai.
6. Susu kuda liar.
7. Susu kambing etawa.
8. Air minum beroksigen.
9. Jus buah segar pesan antar.
10. Selai buah.
11. Es Kacang Merah.
12. Es ketan hitam.
13. Es kelapa muda.

Jasa :

1. Pengurusan dokumen.
2. Delivery order.
3. Penyelamat data.
4. Konsultan.
5. Kurir.
6. Pengetikan.
7. Pencucian mobil dan motor.

Kursus dan Pendidikan :

1. Sekolah enterpreneurship.
2. Kursus bahasa asing.
3. Bimbingan belajar rumahan.
4. Sekolah pasien pasca stroke.
5. Play Group.
6. Kursus musik.
7. Sekolah tari.
8. Kursus desain grafis.
9. Kursus servis telepun seluler dan komputer.

Rental :

1. Rental komputer dan internet.
2. Rental mobil.
3. Rental studio musik.
4. Rental komik dan buku bacaan.

Agribisnis :

1. Budidaya ikan mas bocah.
2. Budidaya ikan komet.
3. Budidaya kantong semar.
4. Budidaya anthurium.
5. Budidaya jeruk nambangan.
6. Penangkaran bekisar.
7. Penangkaran rusa.
8. Penangkaran buaya.
9. Budidaya bunga krisan.
10. Budidaya bunga melati.
11. Budidaya jamur lingzhi.
12. Budidaya jamur merang.
13. Budidaya kencur.
14. Budidaya buah Tin.
15. Budidaya belimbing dewi.
16. Budidaya kambing Etawa.
17. Budidaya itik laut.
18. Budidaya kelinci hias.
19. Budidaya anjing Golden Retriever.
20. Penetasan telur ayam, bebek dan itik.

Kerajinan :

1. Membuat kap lampu dari pasir, mika, enceng gondok, pelepah pisang, dan kayu.
2. Membuat perkakas rumah tangga dari kertas bekas.
3. Membuat mainan dari kayu, misalnya puzzle.
4. Membuat souvenir berbahan baku resin.
5. Membuat souvenir dari daun kering.
6. Membuat souvenir dari serangga.
7. Membuat souvenir dari limbah kepompong ulat sutera.
8. Membuat kerajinan dari bubur limbah kertas.
9. Membuat kerajinan dari pelepah pisang kering.
10. Membuat lanskap mini.
11. Membuat tas dari limbah aluminium.
12. Membuat batik dari serat alam.
13. Membuat mukenah yang dilukis batik.
14. Membuat album eksklusif.
15. Membuat deco book.
16. Membuat boneka berambut hidup.
17. Membuat boneka muslimah.
18. Membuat boneka yang bisa melahirkan.

Sabtu, 18 September 2010

Foto Kegiatan Buka Bersama

Foto kegiatan Buka bersama PGM dengan Wakil Bupati Sukabumi, dapat diklik di sini.

PGM Tantang Sukma-Jajuli

SUKABUMI- Pengurus Persatuan Guru Madrasah (PGM) Kabupaten Sukabumi menantang Pemerintah Kabupaten (Pemkab) Sukabumi di bawah kepemimpinan Sukmawijaya-Akhmad Jajuli berani menyusun kabinet bersih. Artinya, wadah organisasi tenaga pendidik sekolah keislaman itu tak mau, penempatan pejabat khususnya yang terkait sektor pendidikan dilakukan asal-asalan dan berbau politis.
Hal itu setidaknya terungkap saat PGM melakukan buka puasa bersama Wakil Bupati (Wabup) Sukabumi Akhmad Jajuli di Rumah Makan Ibu Entik Senin lalu. Ketua Umum PGM Kabupaten Sukabumi, Munir Ridwan mengatakan PGM mendukung tindakan pimpinan daerah yang secara sigap dan cepat melakukan sidak untuk koordinasi dan konsolidasi dengan dinas atau instansi di lingkungan Pemkab Sukabumi. Namun di sini, lembaganya akan berupaya kritis jika kebijakan itu tak sejalan dengan keinginan masyarakat khususnya guru.

"Kami sebagai organisasi profesi berharap agar dapat bersinergi dengan pemerintah sesuai dengan peran dan fingsi masing-masing," katanya.
Munir menyatakan, pihaknya juga berharap pola penempatan pejabat mampu dilakukan sesuai dengan kapabilitas, integritas, loyalitas dan dedikasi terhadap kemajuan Kabupaten Sukabumi. "Kami sangat mengharapkan agar dalam penyusunan kabinet lebih bersih tanpa ada unsur kepentingan baik pribadi, partai atau golongan tertentu," jelasnya.

Hal senada juga diungkapkan salah seorang praktisi pendidikan Kabupaten Sukabumi, Mulyawan S Nugraha. Ia mengatakan harus ada pembenahan yang revolusioner dan tidak populis terhadap struktur birokrasi yang selama ini dianggap belum maksimal, khususnya di leading sector pendidikan, kesehatan dan ekonomi di Kabupaten Sukabumi. Hal ini karena tiga sektor itu adalah tolok ukur Indeks Pembangunan Manusia. Selain itu juga, harus ada penguatan terhadap pencapaian visi misi bupati dan wakil bupati dengan senantiasa mengadakan koordinasi dan pengendalian dalam melaksanakan program kerja yang ada di semua Organisasi Perangkat Daerah (OPD).

"Ini sebenarnya bagaimana langkah awal yang dibangun oleh pasangan Bupati dan Wakil Bupati Kabupaten Sukabumi dalam menentukan rekanan kerjanya," pungkasnya.
Jajuli sendiri menyambut baik peran PGM yang selama ini telah berkiprah dalam pembangunan pendidikan di Kabupaten Sukabumi. "Kami akan berusaha memberikan yang terbaik. Sesuai dengan visi misi yang telah diajukan," ujarnya. (rp9)

Rabu, 08 September 2010 , 01:45:00
Berita ini dapat dilihat di sini.

Tujuh Kalimah ALLAH

Tujuh Kalimah ALLAH:
1. Mengucap “Bismillah” pada tiap-tiap hendak melakukan sesuatu.
2. Mengucap “Alhamdulillah” pada tiap-tiap selesai melakukan sesuatu.
3. Mengucap “Astaghfirullah” jika lidah terselip perkataan yang tidak patut.
4. Mengucap “Insya Allah” jika merencanakan berbuat sesuatu di hari esok.
5. Mengucap “La haula wala quwwata illa billah” jika menghadapi sesuatu tak disukai dan tak diingini.
6. Mengucap “Inna lillahi wa inna ilaihi rajiun” jika menghadapi dan menerima musibah.
7. Mengucap “La ilaha illallah Muhammadarrasulullah” sepanjang siang dan malam sehingga tak terpisah dari lidahnya.

Senin, 13 September 2010

KAMUS Bahasa Pegawai Kantoran

ASAP
Singkatan dari As Soon As Possible, biasanya dipakai oleh atasan yg minta laporan dari bawahannya. Paling males dapet email yg subjectnya ASAP pake huruf gede. Biasanya laporan ini sifatnya dadakan banget. Celakanya, bagi bawahan, laporan inilah yg biasanya paling lama dicuekin, alias gak diduga2 kalo se waktu2 bos minta, walhasil..JEBRET! Lembur sampe pagi!

TENTATIVE
Kata sakti yg biasanya dipakai utk menjelaskan sesuatu di masa depan yg kurang jelas menjadi lebih gak jelas. Apalagi kalo dlm suasana meeting yg udah sangat gak produktif dan super ngebosenin, kalo bisa semua keputusan bersifat tentative. Yang penting cepet pulang.

MEETING
Harusnya sih RAPAT dlm EYD. Tapi mo gimana lagi? Dah bekennya begitu, kalo bilang rapat, kesannya mo ke pak RT atau pak Lurah aja.

TARUH DI MEJA SAYA
Salah satu dari sedikit kalimat berbahasa Indonesia yg dapat mewakili status si pengucapnya. Biasanya kalimat ini diucapkan oleh : Owner kepada Direktur. Direktur kepada GM. GM kepada Manager. Manager kepada Supervisor. Supervisor kepada Staff. Staff kepada OB dan terakhir OB kepada tukang bubur ayam. Kebayang kan ? Betapa susahnya kalo sang owner mo sarapan bubur?

AFTER LUNCH
Untuk menunjukan waktu yg HARUSnya jam 1 siang, tapi biasanya kalimat ini dipakai kalo janjian dgn level sesama manager atau diatasnya. Kalau masih janjian sesama staff or supervisor mah simple aja “Abis makan deh” atau “Makan dolo bro, baru kita sambung” Note : Setinggi2nya level anda, jangan sampai bilang “Makan dolo bro” ke owner.

COFFE BREAK
Kebiasaan para pegawai malas yg tidak produktif. Sering dilakukan oleh bos atau para staff. Bos punya jadwal coffe break maksimal cuma 2 kali sehari dan melakukannya di ruangan sendiri. Nah, kalau staff sering mencoba melakukan gerilya coffe break sesering mungkin di pantry, kantin atau smoking room. Dan sering panik kalau bos tiba2 memanggil. Ketika ditanya kemana, alesannya kreatif sekali. Fotokopi lah, ngejilid lah, toilet lah sampai alesan minta data dari komputer temen, gara2 YM-nya lagi trouble.

LEGALITAS
Campuran Indonesia-Inggris yg menunjukan keadaan pekerjaan yg sudah sampai ke level menengah ke atas. Biasanya kata ini terucap ketika hasil atau proses produksi perusahaan tersandung sengketa. Heran, kenapa selalu kesebut kalo lagi kisruh ya? Contoh kalimat favorit “Kok bisa begitu? Legalitasnya kan sudah OK semua! Apa? Dia ngajak bawah tangan? Kuliah dimana sih tu orang?”

OVERTIME
Bahasa Indonesianya Lembur. Tapi somehow, overtime lebih keren. Soalnya kalo lembur kayak OB & Driver.

13th SALARY / BONUS
I love this sentence / word. Kalau nggak mengundang uang, seenggaknya mengundang kehebohan dlm kebersamaan. Dimana divisi2 yg tadinya bermusuhan & berseteru, tiba2 bersatu padu dlm kekompakan nan mengharu biru.

BREAKFAST/LUNCH/ DINNER MEETING
Kalau owner atau direktur yg melakukannya, terbukti efisien dan tepat guna. Kalau manager yg melakukannya terbukti menjadi alesan ulur2 jam istirahat dan pemborosan budget perusahaan, sementara hasilnya tetep gantung. Kalau perlu melebar ke shopping meeting, karaoke meeting atau outbound meeting (biasanya ke Puncak. Sukur2 Bali )

ENTERTAINMENT
Hampir sejenis dgn penjelasan diatas. Bedanya produk yg dihasilkan berupa New Project atau sekedar ucapan terima kasih. Namun buntutnya lebih panjang, apalagi menyangkut new project. Budget yg disediakan pun lebih besar. Biasanya dilakukan oleh pimpro. Jenis entertaint juga bermacam2 tergantung sifat pimpro-nya. Ada yg cuma sekedar dinner, karaoke malah sampai ke meja panti pijat plus plus di sekitar Fatmawati, Melawai atau daerah Kota & MangBes. Dengan satu tujuan mulia : Yang penting proyek jebol.

OUTING / OUTBOUND
Inisiatif management perusahaan dlm me-re-fresh karyawannya. Dengan tujuan agar lebih bugar dan kompak menghadapi masalah2 di kantor. Sementara terkadang para karyawan mendapat hasil yg jauh lebih maksimal dari pada sekedar bugar. Affair. Moment jo. Moment.

925 (NINE TO FIVE)
The International Office Hours. Bedanya, di negara maju dgn 925 bisa mencapai hasil yg maksimal, kalau di Indonesia 825 pun harus dibumbui overtime, dgn catatan gak janji beres ya.

24/7 (TWENTY FOUR SEVEN)
24 jam sehari 7 hari seminggu. Kalimat sakti para bos utk mengintimidasi tangan kanannya, dgn diiming-imingi bonus yg masih berada di gray area (baca : Kerja rodi dulu, bonus belom tentu, tergantung jebolan proyek)

PANTRY
Seharusnya sih tempat persiapan para OB utk bikin kopi, nyiapin sarapan dan sejenisnya. Tapi sesuai kebutuhan dan kreatifitas daya khayal karyawan, ruangan ini bisa menjadi multifungsi sebagai smoking room, gossip room, breast pump room dan room2 bagi komunitas underground lainnya. Pokoknya dari semua ruangan, pantry adalah ruangan paling top!

OB (OFFICE BOY)
Para malaikat penyelamat. Pahlawan tanpa tanda jasa. Percayalah, bila tak ada OB , niscaya hancur seluruh kegiatan ekonomi perusahaan. Telepon boleh mati. Fax boleh rusak. Tapi kalo OB sakit? Stress menghinggapi seluruh kantor.

MESENGGER
Teman seperjuangan OB nasibnya-nya kurleb sama dgn OB. Tapi bedanya mesangger lebih mobile karena tugasnya mengantarkan dokumen2 penting. Pekerjaan nan mulia sungguh. Walau terkadang jadi korban tangan2 karyawan jahil yg ingin menitipkan kado ke pacar yg letak kantornya (sangat amat) berjauhan.

JOBDESK
Stands for Job Description. Detail pekerjaan karyawan yg dituang dlm kontrak kerja. 80% dari JobDesk biasanya dianggap sepele dan dicuekin. Sebaliknya, apabila gaji dipotong 80% malah akan menjadi bencana & malapetaka.

TOILET
Selain tempat buang hajat n dandan, toilet bisa menjadi ruangan pemersatu umat. Dimana sekali seminggu, sebulan, setahun atau bahkan seumur hidup si kasta rendah bisa berada satu ruangan dgn si kasta agung (kalo beruntung malah dlm keadaan celana melorot, dasi kena kencing, kolor longgar, lagi ngeden, bau kentut dsb)

YM-an
Sejatinya, YM bisa berguna sebagai data transfer device yg sangat effisien tanpa harus melibatkan kehadiran flash disk. Namun di tangan2 orang yg tidak bertanggung jawab, alat ini berubah fungsi menjadi tempat pembicaraan kaum underground mengenai bentuk muka si bos yg aneh, ketidakpuasan kebijakan management, sampai janji kencan after work antar oknum lain divisi.

SOUNDING
Istilah utk pemberitahuan sesuatu yg harus di-up-dated kepada divisi2 yg bersangkutan. Walopun harusnya bersifat tulisan dan resmi, namun di tangan karyawan kebanyakan, sounding selalu bersifat verbal / oral Sehingga pada akhirnya yg terjadi buka up dated yg didapat melainkan word up atau malah fist up (baca : tuduh2an / lempar2an) alamakjan.

CC & REPLY ALL
Istilah email yg selalu jadi bahan pembelaan nomor satu apabila proses sounding menjadi kisruh. Berdoa aja emailnya beneran nyampe, bukan mailer daemon atau lebih parah lagi masih ada di draft folder, hehehe.

MAN BEHIND THE DESK / ORANG KANTORAN
Ledekan para tenaga operasional lapangan kepada karyawan administrasi, apalagi yg berdasi. Namun karyawan adminstrasi menyikapi dgn bijak, berupa keputusan tahan gaji, memotong uang lembur atau penyulitan administrasi kasbon dan cuti. Dengan alasan cerdas yg bersifat sangat teknis nan membingungkan tentunya.

AFFAIR
Bahasa indonesianya : SELINGKUH artinya (some might says) SELingan INdah KeluarGa UtuH. Salah satu dari sangat sedikit hal yg membuat semangat datang ke kantor.

FOLLOW UP
Kegiatan yg paling enak diucapin namun paling males dilakuin.

CONCERN
Bentuknya macem2 ada Tax Concern, Managemet Concern. Salary Concern, Employees Concern Namun apapun dan bagaimanapun bentuknya, concern2an ini pasti berujung dgn meeting nan membosankan yg sangat menguras waktu dan tenaga.

KASBON
Selamat hari ini. Celaka hari esok.

REIMBURSEMENT
Kata benda yg sangat diharap2kan kehadirannya oleh karyawan. Terutama bagi karyawan yg sangat mengabdi pada perusahaan. Karena bagi lidah orang Indonesia kata ini sangat sulit dilafalkan, maka dapat disingkat menjadi rembes atau rembesan. Contoh :

"Eh cuy, rembesan gw dah keluar belom?"
"Belom nih cong, masih nyangkut di plafon"
"Dipercepat dong. Bokek nih"
"Beres. Jangan lupa traktirannya ya. Udah gw bantuin nih. Lo kan tau si bos paling lama soal begituan"
Jadi, reimbursement juga dapat menjadi semacam pungutan liar bagi bagian keuangan.

I HATE MONDAY
Terucap seminggu sekali. Biasanya di Senin pagi pukul 6. Hidup terasa berat & membosankan. Apalagi kalau pekerjaan menumpuk & jadwal meeting yg padat ada di depan mata.

MIDWEEK MADNESS
Ngambil istilah dari acara Rock MTV tahun 90-an. Saking annoyingnya gw males ngejelasinnya. Pokoknya pasti pada ngarti dah ya.

THANKS GOD IT'S FRIDAY
Hari dimana 925 sama sekali gak berlaku. Istirahat 2 jam dgn alasan solat jumat. Padahal malah ngelayap ke Gramedia / Gunung Agung. Karyawan wanitapun gak mo kalah dgn merayakan jumat siang dgn shopping dan makan siang di ujung dunia. Kayaknya bahagiaaaaa banget!

ANNUAL LEAVE
Sesuatu yg lebih ditunggu2 kehadirannya. Saking kreatifnya, karyawan bisa mengatur jadwal cutinya sesuai dgn keluarnya bonus sekaligus ketika pas kejadian proyek lagi ribet2nya. Hebat hebat.

LONG WEEKEND
Gak ada kata yg tepat utk mendeskripsikan kalimat ini kecuali : Anugerah Yang Terindah Yang Pernah Kumiliki by Sheila on Seven.

Sabtu, 04 September 2010

Tausiyah Filosofis untuk kehidupan yang lebih baik...

by Mulyawan S. Nugraha
Seorang professor berdiri di depan kelas filsafat ...

Tanpa mengucapkan sepatah kata, dia mengambil toples kosong mayones yang besar dan mulai mengisi dengan bola-bola golf.

Lalu dia bertanya pada muridnya, apakah toples itu sudah penuh. Mereka setuju.

Kemudian dia mengambil sekotak batu koral dan menuangkannya ke dalam toples. Dia mengguncang dengan ringan. Batu-batu koral masuk, mengisi tempat yang kosong di antara bola-bola golf.

Dia kembali bertanya, apakah toples itu sudah penuh. Mereka mengangguk.

Selanjutnya profesor mengambil sekotak pasir dan menebarkan ke dalam toples ... Tentu saja pasir itu menutup segala sesuatunya. Toples terlihat sdh penuh.

Profesor kemudian menuangkan dua cangkir kopi ke dalam toples, dan kopi tsb mengisi ruangan kosong di antara pasir.

Para murid tertawa ....

"Pahami, bahwa toples ini mewakili kehidupanmu.

"Bola-bola golf adalah hal-hal yg penting spt Tuhan, keluarga, anak-anak, kesehatan, dan para sahabat. Jika semua hilang dan tanpa mereka, maka hidupmu masih tetap penuh.

Batu-batu koral adalah pekerjaan, rumah dan mobil.

Sedangkan pasir adalah hal-hal lainnya yang sepele.

Jika kalian pertama kali memasukkan pasir ke dalam toples, maka tidak akan tersisa ruangan untuk batu-batu koral ataupun bola-bola golf.. Kalian akan menghabiskan energi untuk hal-hal yang sepele.

Jadi ...Beri perhatian untuk hal-hal yang kritis. Bermainlah dengan anak-anakmu. Luangkan waktu untuk check up kesehatan. Berikan perhatian terlebih dahulu pada 'BOLA BOLA GOLF'.

Salah satu murid bertanya, "Kopi mewakili apa?"

Profesor: "Itu untuk menunjukkan bahwa sekalipun hidupmu tampak begitu penuh, masih tersedia tempat untuk secangkir kopi bersama sahabat...

Tausiyah Filosofis untuk kehidupan yang lebih baik...

Term of Reference

SIMPOSIUM NASIONAL
“PELAJARAN PENANGGULANGAN KEMISKINAN DARI DAERAH”
IRE-PRAKARSA-FPPM-FITRA DIDUKUNG OLEH FORD FOUNDATION

Latar belakang
Penanggulangan kemiskinan menjadi agenda nasional dan dilakukan secara seragam dan terpusat. Pada prinsipnya kebijakan PK nasional itu menempuh dua strategi ganda secara simultan yaitu, pengurangan beban pengeluaran keluarga miskin. Pengurangan beban dilakukan dengan program bantuan dan perlindungan sosial (raskin, BOS, jamkesmas, dll) dan PNPM mandiri. sementara yang peningkatan pendapatan keluarga miskin ditempuh dengan PNPM mandiri dan pengembangan UMKM melalui kredit usaha rakyat. Menurut catatan TKPK, dana yang dialokasikan untuk program PK meningkat drastis 250 persen selama lima tahun sementara angka kemiskinan turun hanya 2 persen.
Daerah tetap menjalankan agenda-agenda nasional tersebut tetapi selama beberapa tahun terakhir ini daerah punya kreasi dan inovasi penanggulangan kemiskinan secara lokal, mengingat kemiskinan itu bersifat regional dan beragam. Inovasi itu bersifat beragam baik dari sisi isu maupun pendekatan. Berdasarkan riset IRE, di Kabupaten Jembrana sudah memfokuskan pada pendidikan dan kesehatan gratis sejak 2001/2002 serta program peningkatan daya beli masyarakat. Ditopang dengan kepemimpinan yang kuat, kebijakan pembangunan dirumuskan secara mainstreaming dan sistemik di mana sistem birokrasi yang dibangun, khususnya program pembangunan di SKPD diharuskan untuk target pengurangan kemiskinan. Sementara itu, di Kabupaten Kebumen, penanggulangan kemiskinan diwarnai oleh gerakan civil society yang cukup maju dalam mendorong kebijakan program pro-poor yang dibuktikan dengan adanya realokasi APBD dalam mendukung program penanggulangan kemiskinan. Di Kabupaten Sukabumi, meskipun angka KK miskin menurun tahun 2008 dan angka IPM meningkat pada tahun yang sama, tetapi angka peningkatannya tidak signifikan. Kita bisa belajar, betapa luasnya cakupan pelayanan pemerintah daerah yang meliputi 47 kecamatan dan jumlah penduduk yang mencapai 2.372.080 jiwa menjadi tantangan besar dalam penanggulangan kemiskinan. Di Kabupaten Bandung, sisi inovasi dan dorongan kebijakan program penanggulangan kemiskinan jauh dari harapan, dibuktikannya dengan kekuatan anggaran (APBD) yang dimiliki berbanding terbalik dengan persoalan tingginya angka kemiskinan di kabupaten Bandung. Angka kemiskinan tinggi, akan tetapi angka Indeks Pembangunan Manusia (IPM). Di Kota Makassar memberikan pembelajaran tentang pentingnya pertumbuhan ekonomi didalam menopang inovasi kebijakan sosial. Political will pemimpin daerah determinan dalam meningkatkan porsi belanja pelayanan publik yang terkait hak-hak dasar warga negara. Sementara itu di Kabupaten Gunungkidul pemerintah daerah melakukan terobosan dalam penanggulangan kemiskinan dengan program “Desa Sebagai Pusat Pertumbuhan”. Akan tetapi, program ini hanya sebatas dokumen, dan tidak teraplikasikan dengan baik. Alhasil, daerah lebih banyak menjalankan skema pembangunan dari pusat (donor driven), karena semua skema program pembantuan dari pusat, masuk ke kabupaten Gunungkidul.
Studi IRE berupaya menarik pelajaran baik yang positif maupun negatif dari enam daerah tersebut. Pelajarn yang positif bisa menjadi bahan belajar, diadaptasi, di daerah lain, dan di-scaling up secara nasional. Sementara pelajaran negatif bisa menjadi catatan kritis untuk merumuskan strategi yang tepat dan relevan dengan konteks lokal.

Maksud dan tujuan
1. Sharing berbagai pelajaran penanggulangan kemiskinan didaerah berdasarkan hasil penelitian IRE dan para mitra.
2. Merumuskan pelajaran positif penanggulangan daerah serta strategi adaptasi dan scaling up.
3. Mengidentifikasi isu-isu kritis PK yang beragam di berbagai daerah sebagai titik tolak untuk merumuskan strategi yang inovatif.
4. Menyediakan ruang untuk menyemai discourse PK yang lebih tajam dan mendalam.
5. Membangun model dan peta jalan penanggulangan kemiskinan yang lebih komprehensif dan relevan.

Narasumber
1. Deputi Seswapres Bidang Kesejahteraan Rakyat selaku Sekretaris Eksekutif TNP2K, dengan tema “Model Penanggulangan Kemiskinan”.
2. Dr. Faisal Basri, M.A., dengan tema “Investasi untuk Pertumbuhan Ekonomi”.
3. Dr. Son Diamar, BAPPENAS, dengan tema “Strategi Perluasan Kesempatan Kerja di Daerah”.
4. Dr. Roy Salomo, Universitas Indonesia, dengan tema “Kebijakan Sosial, Pelayanan Publik, dan Penganggaran”.
5. Bapak John Victor Bottini, Task Team Leader PNPM Mandiri Pedesaaan, dengan tema “Pemberdayaan, Partisipasi Masyarakat, dan Penanggulangan Kemiskinan”.
6. Ibu Titik Hartini, Direktur Eksekutif ACE, dengan tema ““Pemberdayaan, Partisipasi Masyarakat, dan Penanggulangan Kemiskinan”.
7. Prof. San Afri Awang, Pusat Studi Ekonomi Pancasila, UGM, dengan tema “ Pengembangan Ekonomi Lokal”.

Waktu dan Tempat
Simposium Nasional diselenggarakan hari Jumat-Sabtu, tanggal 3-4 September 2010 di Hotel Quality Yogyakarta, dengan alamat Jl. Adisucipto No. 48, Yogyakarta, Telp. 0274-485005.

Penyelenggara
Simposium Nasional ini hasil kerjasama Konsorsium yang beranggotakan Institute for Research and Empowerment (IRE) Yogyakarta, Sekretariat Nasional Forum Indonesia untuk Transparansi Anggaran (Seknas FITRA), Forum Pengembangan Partisipasi Masyarakat (FPPM) dan Prakarsa dengan Ford Foundation.

Peserta
Simposium Nasional diikuti oleh 100 orang peserta yang terdiri dari 26 utusan dari pemerintah daerah, NGO, Lembaga Donor, dan para pejabat dari lingkungan Kementrian Koordinator Kesejahteraan Rakyat, Kementrian Pembangunan Daerah Tertinggal dan Bappenas yang membidangi urusan penanggulangan kemiskinan.
Lain-lain
• Simposium Nasional ini difasilitasi oleh IRE Yogyakarta bekerjasama dengan Ford Fondation.
• Panitia mengganti biaya transport peserta (transport darat untuk peserta dari Jawa dan transport udara kelas ekonomi untuk peserta dari Jakarta dan luar Jawa). Panitia juga mengganti transportasi lokal menuju bandara.
• Peserta dari pemerintah daerah diharapkan dapat menanggung transportasi memakai SPPD karena panitia hanya menanggung akomodasi dan paket meeting.
• Peserta diharap mencari tiket transport sendiri dan akan diganti oleh panitia di Yogyakarta (reimbursh).
• Peserta dapat check in di Hotel Quality, Kamis, 2 September 2010 jam 14.00 WIB, dan check out maksimal Minggu, 5 September 2010 jam 12.00 WIB.
• IRE Yogyakarta hanya menanggung biaya kamar dengan fasilitas makan pagi, makan siang, makan malam dan coffeebreak, sedangkan biaya-biaya lain seperti telepon kamar, laundry, penggunaan minibar, pemesanan makanan ke kamar maupun di restaurant (diluar paket yang disediakan IRE) dan lain-lain menjadi tanggung jawab peserta.
• Khusus peserta dari kota Yogya tidak disediakan akomodasi/penginapan.

Institute for Research and Empowerment (IRE) Yogyakarta
Dusun Tegalrejo RT 01/RW 09, Desa Sariharjo, Kec. Ngaglik, Jln. Palagan Tentara Pelajar Km. 9,5 Sleman Yogyakarta 55581. Telp/Fax : 0274-867686, 7482091; E-mail: office@ireyogya.org

Contact Person :
Dina Mariana : 081931732249
(dina@ireyogya.org, dinora_mariana@yahoo.com)
Machmud : 08156809043/081328350889
(machmud@ireyogya.org) ; machmud_009@yahoo.com)
Hesti : 085743491008
(office@ireyogya.org)

Inspiring People: Figur Inspiratif Indonesia yang Sukses Tanpa Titel

by Mulyawan S. Nugraha

Ada info dari email kawan. tentang kegelisahan menghadapi kenyataan hidup.mudah2an ini bisa menginspirasi kegundahan yang terjadi.

kawan....

Sebagian dari figur yang diuraikan di bawah ini (dari semua tokoh yang tak tersebut ) adalah orang - orang sukses di Indonesia yang tidak memiliki gelar sarjana. Mereka mengenyam pendidikan hanya sampai jenjang sekolah menengah. Riwayat pendidikan mereka serupa :

1. terkadang gagal meneruskan kuliah karena miskin /
2. memiliki jiwa pemberontak /
3. salah jurusan saat kuliah.

Keberhasilan yang mereka raih juga memiliki ciri - ciri serupa :

1. pantang menyerah kepada nasib /
2. menumbuhkan jiwa kreatif /
3. terus menerus berusaha menjadi manusia pembelajar

Mereka adalah street-boys, orang -orang yang belajar dari kehidupan nyata.

Bagaimana dengan anda? Jika anda lebih beruntung dengan memiliki gelar sarjana berderet - deret , sudahkah anda belajar dari kehidupan nyata? Sudahkah anda berprestasi seperti Ibu Tri Mumpuni? atau bahkan melebihi beliau?

inilah sebagian dari figur inspiratif itu :

1. Andy F.Noya

PimRed Metro TV ini belum lulus sarjana... Satu hal yang menarik, Andy sebenarnya adalah orang teknik. Sejak lulus SD Sang Timur di Malang, Jawa Timur, pria kelahiran Surabaya ini sekolah di Sekolah Teknik Jayapura lalu melanjutkan ke STM Jayapura. "Tetapi sejak kecil saya merasa jatuh cinta pada dunia tulis menulis. Kemampuan menggambar kartun dan karikatur semakin membuat saya memilih dunia tulis menulis sebagai jalan hidup saya," tutur Andy.

2. Adam Malik

Ternyata orang yg dikabarkan Agen CIA ini ternyata gak pernah ngenyam bangku sekolah.

3. M. H. Ainun Najib

Emha Ainun Nadjib hanya tiga bulan kuliah, Pendidikan formalnya hanya berakhir di Semester 1 Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM). Sebelumnya dia pernah 'diusir' dari Pondok Modern Gontor Ponorogo karena melakukan 'demo' melawan pemerintah pada pertengahan tahun ketiga studinya, kemudian pindah ke Yogya dan tamat SMA Muhammadiyah I. Selebihnya Beliau jadi pengembara ilmu di luar sekolah hingga dia bisa jadi manusia dengan bermacam sebutan (multifungsi).

4. Abdullah Gymnastiar

kiayi yang kmarin2 ini santer dengan kasus poligaminya,ternyata sukses menjadi kiayi dan wirausahawan (pengusah besar) tanpa ijazah. walaupun sudah lulus, tapi dikabarkan sampai saat ini blm mengambil ijazahnya.

5. Ajip Rosidi

dengan tak mau mengikuti ujian akhir SMA nya. Dia menolak ikut ujian karena waktu itu beredar kabar bocornya soal-soal ujian. Dia berkesimpulan bahwa banyak orang menggantungkan hidupnya kepada ijazah. "Saya tidak jadi ikut ujian, karena ingin membuktikan bisa hidup tanpa ijazah". Dan itu dibuktikan dengan terus menulis, membaca dan menabung buku sampai ribuan jumlahnya. Walhasil sampai pensiun sebagai guru besar tamu di Jepang, Dia yang tidak punya ijazah SMA , pada usia 29 tahun diangkat sebagai dosen luar biasa Fakultas Sastra Universitas Padjadjaran. Lalu jadi Direktur Penerbit Dunia Pustaka Jaya, Ketua Ikapi Pusat, Ketua DKJ dan akhirnya pada usia 43 tahun menjadi profesor tamu di Jepang sampai pensiun.

Berikut Sejarah Pendidikan Beliau :

Sekolah Rakyat 6 tahun di Jatiwangi (1950)

Sekolah Menengah Pertama Negeri VIII Jakarta (1953)

Taman Madya, Taman Siswa Jakarta (1956, tidak tamat)

6. Bob Sadino

Bob Sadino lahir dari sebuah keluarga yang hidup berkecukupan. Ia adalah anak bungsu dari lima bersaudara. Sewaktu orang tuanya meninggal, Bob yang ketika itu berumur 19 tahun mewarisi seluruh harta kekayaan keluarganya karena saudara kandungnya yang lain sudah dianggap hidup mapan. Bob kemudian menghabiskan sebagian hartanya untuk berkeliling dunia dan tidak melanjutkan kuliah. Dalam perjalanannya itu, ia singgah di Belanda dan menetap selama kurang lebih 9 tahun. Di sana, ia bekerja di Djakarta Lylod di kota Amsterdam dan juga di Hamburg, Jerman. Ketika tinggal di Belanda itu, Bob bertemu dengan pasangan hidupnya, Soelami Soejoed.

Pada tahun 1967, Bob dan keluarga kembali ke Indonesia. Ia membawa serta 2 Mercedes miliknya, buatan tahun 1960-an. Salah satunya ia jual untuk membeli sebidang tanah di Kemang, Jakarta Selatan sementara yang lain tetap ia simpan. Setelah beberapa lama tinggal dan hidup di Indonesia, Bob memutuskan untuk keluar dari pekerjaannya karena ia memiliki tekad untuk bekerja secara mandiri.

7. Andrie Wongso

Anak ke-2 dari 3 bersaudara ini terlahir dari sebuah keluarga miskin di kota Malang. Di usia 11 tahun (kelas 6 SD), terpaksa harus berhenti bersekolah karena sekolah mandarin tempat andrie kecil bersekolah ditutup. Maka SDTT, Sekolah Dasar Tidak Tamat, adalah gelar yang disandangnya saat ini. Masa kecil hingga remajanya pun kemudian dilalui dengan membantu orang tuanya membuat dan berkeliling berjualan kue ke toko-toko dan pasar.

8. Purdi E Chandra

Sosok Purdi E. Chandra kini dikenal sebagai pengusaha yang sukses. Lembaga Bimbingan Belajar (Bimbel) Primagama yang didirikannya bahkan masuk ke Museum Rekor Indonesia (MURI) lantaran memiliki 181 cabang di 96 kota besar di Indonesia dengan 100 ribu siswa tiap tahun.

Bukan suatu kebetulan jika pengusaha sukses identik dengan kenekatan mereka untuk berhenti sekolah atau kuliah. Seorang pengusaha sukses tidak ditentukan gelar sama sekali. Inilah yang dipercaya Purdi ketika baru membangun usahanya.

Kuliah di 4 jurusan yang berbeda, Psikologi, Elektro, Sastra Inggris dan Farmasi di Universitas Gajah Mada (UGM) dan IKIP Yogya membuktikan kecemerlangan otak Purdi. Hanya saja ia merasa tidak mendapatkan apa-apa dengan pola kuliah yang menurutnya membosankan. Ia yakin, gagal meraih gelar sarjana bukan berarti gagal meraih cita-cita. Purdi muda yang penuh cita -cita dan idealisme ini pun nekad meninggalkan bangku kuliah dan mulai serius untuk berbisnis.

Kini kabarnya Purdi E. Chandra sekarang sudah ada lebih dari 500 cabang Primagama di seluruh indonesia.

9. Hendy Setiono

Hendy Setiono (kebab Baba Rafi) mengawali usaha tahun 2003 di Surabaya. Modalnya hanya Rp 10 juta atau sebuah gerobak burger. Kini bisnisnya berkembang pesat dengan menu makanan utama kebab serta santapan ala koboi (burger serta hotdog). Jumlah cabangnya setiap tahun terus bertambah. Terakhir, terdapat 140 outlet tersebar di 25 kota, antara lain Batam, Bali, Bandung, Banjarmasin, Malang, Gresik, Jember, Kediri, Lampung, Padang, Malang, Makasar, Medan, Pasuruan, Pekan Baru, Karawang, Surabaya, Sukabumi, Semarang, Sidoarjo, Tasikmalaya, Jogjakarta, dan Jakarta

10. Buya Hamka

HAMKA (1908-1981), adalah akronim kepada nama sebenar Haji Abdul Malik bin Abdul Karim Amrullah. Ia adalah seorang ulama, aktivis politik dan penulis Indonesia yang amat terkenal di alam Nusantara.

Hamka mendapat pendidikan rendah di Sekolah Dasar Maninjau sehingga kelas dua. Ketika usia HAMKA mencapai 10 tahun, ayahnya telah mendirikan Sumatera Thawalib di Padang Panjang. Di situ Hamka mempelajari agama dan mendalami bahasa Arab. Hamka juga pernah mengikuti pengajaran agama di surau dan masjid yang diberikan ulama terkenal seperti Syeikh Ibrahim Musa, Syeikh Ahmad Rasyid, Sutan Mansur, R.M. Surjopranoto dan Ki Bagus Hadikusumo.

11.Basrizal Koto

Basko yang panjang akal dan visioner mengawali usahanya dengan berjualan pete. Meski tidak punya uang tetapi dengan modal kepercayaan, pete yang belum dibayar dibawanya ke restoran Padang dan dijual dengan selisih harga yang lebih tinggi. Perjalanan hidupnya penuh warna dan keinginan untuk terus mengubah nasib mengantarnya menjajal berbagai macam profesi mulai dari kernet, sopir, pemborong, tukang jahit hingga akhirnya menjadi diler mobil.

Kemahirannya berkomunikasi, membangun jaringan, menepati janji, dan menjaga kepercayaan akhirnya membawanya sukses menaklukan kemiskinan, membangun kerajaan bisnis, dan menciptakan lapangan kerja. Jumlah perusahaan yang dikelolanya kini mencapai 15 perusahaan

12. Dahlan Iskan

Direktur Utama PT Perusahaan Listrik Negara (Persero),pada Hari Senin 25 Januari 2010, bertemu dengan Komisi Energi Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat untuk mengikuti rapat dengar pendapat mengenai industri listrik di Indonesia.

Dahlan pun mengawali pertemuan itu dengan perkenalan. Mulai dari nama, jabatan, hingga pendidikan. "Mohon maaf, karena orang tua saya hanya petani, maka hanya sanggup menyekolahkan saya sampai SMU saja," kata Dahlan,

Ternyata, Dahlan hanya lulusan Sekolah Menengah. Kita susah sekali mencari latar belakang pendidikannya. Penelusuran di mesin pencari juga belum menemukan pendidikannya. Bahkan dari situs pribadinya, dahlaniskan.info dan dahlaniskan.net juga tidak mencantumkan pendidikan Dahlan.

Di situ hanya ditulis, Dahlan Iskan adalah raja media yang memiliki jaringan media se antero Indonesia. Usahanya itu di bawah naungan Jawa Pos Group. Bahkan belakangan, dia merambah ke bisnis percetakan, pembangkit listrik, dan batu bara.

13. Yoris Sebastian

Anak muda yang tak pernah kuliah formal ini, justru menjadi ikon ekonomi kreatif di Indonesia. Mengetahui sosok Yoris Sebastian bagi saya memang baru-baru saja. Salah satu anak muda Indonesia yang kreatif dan berprestasi. Pantaslah kalau Yoris Sebastian bisa dijadikan inspirasi dan motivasi, mengingat pendidikannya yang hanya tamatan SMA, tapi ide-idenya yang cemerlang, bagi saya itu adalah inovasi. Menjadi General Manager di Hard Rock Café Asia Pacific pada umur 26 th, pemrakarsa acara 'I Like Monday' di HardRock Café Jakarta, salah satu acara yang diingat banyak orang. Dan bejibun prestasi lain yang mengekornya. Saat ini Yoris Sebastian memiliki 'Oh My Goodness (OMG) Creative Consulting', perusahaan yang menciptakan ide-ide unik dan kreatif untuk marketing perusahaan atau produk. Lebih jauh tentang Yoris silakan ----> Klik di sini : http://yorissebastian.com/

Kawan2 ku yang baik...

Semua figur di atas membuktikan bahwa pendidikan formal, bukanlah satu2nya jalan hidup dan pilihan untuk kesuksesan di masa depan. Pendidikan adalah invenstasi kemanusiaan yang dapat didapat dimanapun manusia berada. tidak dibatasi oleh ruangan kelas, 4 didinding dan suasana yang menjemukkan. bagi kawan2 yang kini tengah menempuh pendidikan formal, atau bahkan telah mendapatkan titel atau gelar dalam pendidikan formal, idealnya harus lebih baik eksistensinya dari figur2 di atas.

Tuhan telah memberikan jalan alternatifnya buat kita

Kini, pilihannya ada pada Anda....

To be or not to be...

Best Regards.

MSN.

Referensi :

http://bisnis.vivanews.com/news/read/124141-benarkah_dahlan_iskan_hanya_lulusan_sma

http://dunia90.blogspot.com/2010/06/10-orang-indonesia-yang-sukses-tanpa.html

http://yorissebastian.com/

http://www.facebook.com/CreativeJunkies?v=wall

http://bit.ly/trymumpuni

Makna Shaum Jasad dan Shaum Batin

Oleh:
Mulyawan S. Nugraha, M.Ag., M.Pd
Pimpinan Kolektif Kahmi Daerah Sukabumi

Ibadah shaum yang diwajibkan Allah dalam QS Al Baqarah ayat 183 sebenarnya mencakup dua jenis shaum, yakni shaum jasad atau lahiriyah dan shaum jiwa atau shaum batihiah. Shaum jasad adalah shaum yang lazimnya dijumpai dalam kitab-kitab Fiqh. Tentang jenis shaum ini, para Ulama mendefinisikannya sebagai menahan diri dari makan, minum, berhubungan suami isteri di siang hari sejak terbit fajar hingga terbenamnya matahari. Yang paling banyak dipahami kaum Muslim adalah shaum jenis ini sampai-sampai Rasulullah SAW, bersabda: “Betapa banyak orang yang bershaum tetapi tidak memperoleh apa-apa dari shaumnya itu selain lapar dan dahaga saja”.

Ini disebabkan kita terlalu memusatkan diri pada shaum jasad ini. Imam Ali bin Abi Thalib mendefinisikan shaum jasad ini sebagai shaum yang dilakukan dengan menahan diri dari makan dan minum, dilaksanakan dengan kehendak, niat, dan ikhtiar, merasa takut dari siksa, dan mengharapkan pahala dan balasan.

Sementara itu, shaum jiwa-menurut Imam Ali- adalah menahan panca indera dari seluruh dosa dan mengosongkan kalbu dari seluruh penyebab keburukan. Jadi, memikirkan keburukan saja sudah membatalkan shaum jiwa. Dua jenis shaum ini harus dipadukan dalam satu rangkaian agar ibadah shaum dapat mengantarkan kita pada derajat takwa. Takwa termasuk suatu maqom yang tinggi. Maqom yang lebih tinggi lagi adalah yakin. Takwa adalah maqom di bawah yakin. Di bawah maqom takwa, ada iman. Di bawah maqom iman, ada Islam. Islam adalah maqom terendah. Karena itu, di kalangan kaum muslim yang masih berada dalam maqom islam ini sering terjadi perselisihan. Semakin tinggi maqom, semakin berkurang perselisihan. Semakin tinggi maqom seseorang, semakin arif dan bijak dirinya.

Ibadah shaum yang dikehendaki Allah dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan maqom hamba-hamba-Nya yang beriman, dari “orang-orang yang beriman” menjadi “orang-orang yang bertakwa” . karena itu, shaum dianggap batal bila hanya jasadnya yang bershaum. Banyak riwayat yang menyebut hal-hal ini. Misalnya saja, suatu hari di bulan ramadhan, Rasulullah SAW melihat seorang wanita yang sedang mencaki-caci pembantunya. Kemudian beliau menyuruh wanita tersebut untuk mengambil makanan. Setelah makanan dihadirkan, Rasulullah SAW menyuruh memakan makan itu. Wanita itu berkata,” Ya Rasulullah, aku sedang bershaum”. Rasulullah SAW berkata, “ Bagaimana mungkin engkau bershaum, padahal tadi aku mendengar engkau mencaci maki pembantumu.”

Nabi menganggap bahwa apa yang dilakukan oleh wanita yang marah tadi, dari sisi jiwa, telah membatalkan shaum. Ini mungkin dilihat sebagai bentuk ketidakmampuannya mengendalikan emosi. Sehingga yang dilakukannya justru “merusak” makna shaum yang seharusnya bisa mengendalikan emosi hingga tidak keluar kemarahan dan cacian pada orang lain. Memang secara jasad ia bershaum, tetapi lidahnya masih mencaci orang lain. Lalu Rasulullah SAW pun menerangkan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan bershaum tidak hanya menahan diri dari makan dan minum saja. Justru, untuk menahan pancaindera atau anggota badan lain dari perbuatan-perbuatan lain yang diharamkan. Dalam bahasa lain, ibadah shaum membentuk kesalehan untuk individual sekaligus sosial.

Kesalehan sosial merupakan kepedulian kepada nilai-nilai islami yang bersifat sosial. Di antaranya suka memikirkan dan santun kepada orang lain, suka menolong dan sebagainya. Selain menjalankan ibadah shaum yang berarti hubungannya dengan Allah (hablun minallah), kita mempunyai tugas untuk beribadah sosial yakni dengan manusia (hablun minan naas). Hal itu menandakan kesalehan total dalam Islam. Di sini menandakan munculnya kesalehan sosial sebab dari pemaknaan terhadap shaum jiwa.

Kesalehan sosial dalam bershaum merupakan tindakan kritis untuk membangun tatanan sosial yang lebih baik. Banyak hal yang dapat dilakukan, misalnya dalam konteks penanggulangan dan pengentasan kemiskinan, pencegahan tindak korupsi dan lain-lain. Harus dipertanyakan komimen ibadah shaum seorang muslim. Bila tidak ada perubahan dalam sensitivitas dan kepedulian mewujudkan keadilan dan solidaritas sosial pada yang lemah, berarti menandakan kurangnya kesadaran spiritual.

Kesalehan sosial dalam solidaritas sosial sebenarnya erat kaitannya dengan kesalehan individual. Jika secara spiritual, shaum membawa pengaruh positif dalam sikap keagamaan dalam arti individunya, maka rasa kemanusiaannya pun akan besar. Begitu pula sebaliknya, jika shaum tidak membawa pengaruh terhadap aspek spiritual maka aspek sosialnya pun akan kecil.

Shaum Ramadan merupakan sebuah jawaban untuk mendidik individu atau masyarakat dalam mengontrol keinginan dan kesenangan dalam dirinya. Karena, makna sosial dalam bershaum akan berdampak positif berupa rasa solidaritas dan kepedulian antarsaudara, rasa kemanusiaan yang mendalam atas penderitaan sesama manusia. Itulah makna takwa sebagai hakikat tujuan shaum yang sebenarnya.

Selamat bershaum. Mudah-mudahan dapat meningkatkan derajat ketakwaan kita dengan memaknainya tidak hanya secara jasad, tapi juga jiwa. Amin.

Wallahu a’lam

Sabtu, 03 Juli 2010

Selected Bibliography of Publications on Education Policy

The publications in this brief bibliography are a starting point: they introduce new researchers to various facets of federal education policy, with emphasis on the role of states, and to some of the principal authors and publications. (A PDF version is also available.)

The publications are organized below under six topics: General Works; State Advocacy on Federal Education Policy; Economically Disadvantaged Students-Title I; Standards, Assessments, and Accountability; Students with Disabilities; and Bilingual Education.

If you would like to view or print the entries for individual topics, click here, then select your topic.

* Items with an asterisk represent together a basic introduction to each topic.

General Works

Included in this section are works on the history of education in general, school reform, methodology, the federal role in education, and intergovernmental structure and policy.

*Allen, Hollis P. The Federal Government and Education [1785-1950]: The Original and Complete Study of Education for the Hoover Commission Task Force on Public Welfare. New York: McGraw Hill, 1950.

Ambach, Gordon M. "The Essential Federal Role." in Voices From the Field: 30 Expert Opinions on America 2000, The Bush Administration Strategy to "Reinvent" America's Schools. Gordon M. Ambach, and others. Washington, DC: William T. Grant Foundation, 1991.

Berman, Paul, and Milbrey McLaughlin. "Federal Support for Improved Educational Practice." in The Federal Interest in Financing Schooling. ed. Michael Timpane. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1978.

Birman, B., and Alan L. Ginsburg. "The Federal Role in Elementary and Secondary Education: New Directions and Continuing Concerns." The Urban Lawyer 14, no. 3 (1982): 472-500.

Brademas, John, and Lynne P. Brown. The Politics of Education: Conflict and Consensus on Capitol Hill. Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1987. Notes: Julian J. Rothbaum Distinguished Lecture Series.

Center on Education Policy. A Brief History of the Federal Role in Education: Why It Began and Why It's Still Needed. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy, 1999.

Chadima, Steven. Elementary, Secondary and Vocational Education: An Examination of Alternate Federal Roles. Washington, DC: United States Congressional Budget Office, 1977.

Congressional Conference Committee Reports. Notes: Available in the Congressional Record and on the Library of Congress Thomas (104 th Congress forward) website.

*Congressional Quarterly Service. Education for a Nation. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Service, 1972.

*———. Federal Role in Education. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Service, 1967.

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*Congressional Research Service. Congressional Research Service Reports. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.

*Cross, Christopher T. Political Education: National Policy Comes of Age. New York: Teachers College Press, 2004.

Elmore, Richard F., and Milbrey Wallin McLaughlin. Steady Work: Policy, Practice, and the Reform of American Education. Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation, 1988.

Federal Interagency Committee on Education (FICE). Toward a Comprehensive Federal Education Policy. Washington, DC: Federal Interagency Committee on Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1977-1978.

*Gaither, Milton. American Educational History Revisited: A Critique of Progress. New York: Teachers College Press, 2003.

Gordon, David T., ed. A Nation Reformed? American Education 20 Years After A Nation At Risk. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2003.

———. "The Transformation of Federal Education Policy." in Exploring the Johnson Years. ed. Robert A. Devine. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1981.

*Graham, Hugh Davis. The Uncertain Triumph: Federal Education Policy in the Kennedy and Johnson Years. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.

Green, Edith. Federal Government and Education: A Report on the Study of Education Programs in Which the Federal Government Is Involved. Washington, DC: House of Representatives, 1963.

Halperin, Samuel. Essays on Federal Education Policy. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership, George Washington University, 1975.

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*Halperin, Samuel, and George R. Kaplan, eds. Federalism at the Crossroads: Improving Educational Policymaking. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership, George Washington University, 1976.

Jennings, Jack, ed. The Future of the Federal Role in Elementary and Secondary Education. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy, 2001. Notes: a conference volume, including papers by Carl Kaestle and Margaret Goertz.

*Jennings, Jack, ed. National Issues in Education: The Past Is Prologue. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa International, 1993.

Kaestle, Carl F. "Education." in Encyclopedia of the United States Congress. eds. D. C. Bacon, R. H. Davidson, and M. Keller. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.

*Kaestle, Carl F., and Marshall S. Smith. "The Federal Role in Elementary and Secondary Education, 1940-1980." Harvard Educational Review 52, no. 4 (1982): 384-408.

Keppel, Francis. "Perspectives on the Federal Role in Education." Alumni Bulletin, HGSE 32, no. 3 (1988): 1-15.

Kirst, Michael W. Politics of Education at the Local, State, and Federal Levels. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1970.

Levin, Betsy. The Courts As Educational Policymakers and Their Impact on Federal Programs: Prepared for the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1977.

Manna, Paul. School's In: Federalism and the National Education Agenda. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2006.

Munger, Frank, and Richard Fenno. National Politics and Federal Aid to Education. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1962.

Nelson, Adam, The Elusive Ideal: Equal Educational Opportunity and the Federal Role in Boston's Public Schools, 1950-1985. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

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*Quattlebaum, Charles A. Federal Aid to Elementary and Secondary Education: An Analytic Study of the Issue, Its Background and Relevant Legislative Proposals, With a Compilation of Arguments Pro and Con, Statistical Data, and Digests of Pertinent Reports and Surveys [1919-1948]. Chicago, IL: Public Administrative Service, 1948.

Ravitch, Diane. "The National Agenda in Elementary and Secondary Education." in Setting National Priorities: The 2000 Election and Beyond. eds. Henry J. Aaron, and Robert D. Reischauer. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1999.

* ———. The Troubled Crusade: American Education 1945-1980. New York: Basic Books, 1983.

Ravitch, Diane, and Maris A. Vinovskis, eds. Learning From the Past: What History Teaches Us About School Reform. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1995.

*Scheiber, Harry N. "Federalism and the States." in Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century. ed. Stanley Kutler, and others. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1996.

Spring, Joel. The Sorting Machine Revisited: National Educational Policy Since 1945. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 1989.

Sundquist, James L. Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1968.

Tiedt, Sidney W. Role of the Federal Government in Education. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966.

*Wirt, Frederick M., and Michael W. Kirst. The Political Dynamics of American Education. 3rd ed. Richmond, CA: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 2005.

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State Advocacy on Federal Education Policy

Bailey, Stephen. The Office of Education and the Education Act of 1965. New York: Bibbs Merrill Company, 1966.

*Bailey, Stephen Kemp. Education Interest Groups in the Nation's Capital. Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1975.

*Campbell, Rould F., Gerald E. Sroufe, and D. H. Layton, eds. Strengthening State Departments of Education. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 1967.

Clark, David L., and Terry Astuto. "The Significance and Permanence of Changes in Federal Education Policy." Educational Researcher 15 (1986): 4-13.

Conlan, Timothy J. Intergovernmentalizing the Classroom: Federal Involvement in Elementary and Secondary Education. Washington, DC: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1981.

*DeBray, Elizabeth. Politics, Ideology, and Congress: The Formation of Federal Education Policy During the Clinton and Bush Administrations. New York: Teachers College Press, 2006.

Firestone, William A., Susan H. Fuhrman, and Michael W. Kirst. Progress of Reform: An Appraisal of State Education Initiatives. Washington, DC: Center for Policy Research in Education, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center, 1989.

Goertz, Margaret E., Robert E. Floden, and Jennifer O'Day. Studies of Education Reform. Systemic Reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Office of Reform Assistance and Dissemination, 1995-1996.

Herrington, Carolyn, and Francis Fowler. "Rethinking the State and Federal Role in Educational Governance." in American Educational Governance on Trial: Change and Challenges, 102nd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. eds. William Lowe Boyd, and Debra Miretzky. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Kantor, Harvey. "Education, Social Reform, and the State: ESEA and Federal Education Policy in the 1960s." American Journal of Education 100, no. 1 (1991): 47-83.

Kimbrough, Jackie, and Paul Hill. The Aggregate Effects of Federal Education Programs. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1981.

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Kirst, Michael W. Evaluating State Education Reforms: A Special Legislative Report. Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures, 1987.

———. "Recent Research on Intergovernmental Relations in Education Policy." Educational Researcher 24 (1995): 18-22.

*Kirst, Michael W., Gail Meister, and Stephen R. Rowley. Policy Issue Networks: Their Influence on State Policymaking. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 1984.

Knapp, Michael, and others. "Cumulative Effects at the Local Level." Education and Urban Society 15, no. 4 (1983): 479-499.

Lusi, Susan Follett. The Role of State Departments of Education in Complex School Reform. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1997.

Massell, Diane, Michael W. Kirst, and Margaret Hoppe. Persistence and Change: Standards-Based Reform in Nine States. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center, 1997.

*McDonnell, Lorraine M., and Milbrey W. McLaughlin. Educational Policy and the Role of the States. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1982. Notes: Prepared for the National Institute of Education, R-2755-NIE.

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McLaughlin, Milbrey. "States and the New Federalism." Harvard Educational Review 52 (1982): 564-583.

Milstein, Mike M. Impact and Response: Federal Aid and State Education Agencies. New York: Teachers College Press, 1976.

Murphy, Jerome T. Grease the Squeaky Wheel: A Report on the Implementation of Title V of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Grants to Strengthen State Departments of Education. Cambridge, MA: Center for Educational Policy Research, Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1973.

National Education Association. Federal-State Relations in Education. Washington, DC: Educational Policies Commission, NEA of the US and the American Association of School Administrators and Problems and Policies Committee, American Council on Education, 1945.

Orland, Martin, and R. J. Goettel. "States and Implementation of Federal Categorical Programs in Education." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 2 (1982): 141-154.

Peterson, Paul E., and Barry G. Rabe. "The Role of Interest Groups in the Formation of Educational Policy: Past Practice and Future Trends." Teachers College Record (1983): 708-729.

Pressman, Jeffrey L., and Aaron Wildavsky. Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973.

*Timar, Thomas B. "The Institutional Role of State Education Departments: A Historical Perspective." American Journal of Education 105 (1997): 231-260.

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Economically Disadvantaged Students-Title I

*Bailey, Stephen K., and Edith K. Mosher. ESEA: The Office of Education Administers a Law. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1968.

*Coleman, James S., and others. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.

*Cooper, Bruce S. and Denis P. Doyle, eds. Federal Aid to the Disadvantaged: What Future for Chapter 1?, London: Falmer Press, 1988.

*DeBray, Elizabeth H., Kathryn A. McDermott, and Priscilla Wohlstetter, eds. "Federalism Reconsidered: The Case of the No Child Left Behind Act." Peabody Journal of Education 80, no. 2 (2005): 1-188. Notes: a special issue of Peabody Journal of Education.

Farkas, George L., and L. Shane Hall. "Can Title I Attain Its Goal?" Brookings Papers on Education Policy. ed. Diane Ravitch. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2000.

*Halperin, Samuel. "ESEA Comes of Age: Some Historical Reflections." Educational Leadership 36, no. 5 (1979): 349-353.

Harrington, Michael. The Other America: Poverty in the United States. New York: MacMillan, 1962.

Howard University, and Institute for the Study of Educational Policy. Equal Educational Opportunity: More Promise Than Progress. Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1977.

Howe, Kenneth Ross. Understanding Equal Educational Opportunity: Social Justice, Democracy, and Schooling. New York: Teachers College Press, 1997.

Jeffrey, Julie Roy. Education for Children of the Poor: A Study of the Origins and Implementation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1978.

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*Jennings, John F., ed. National Issues in Education: Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa International, 1995.

*Katz, Michael, ed. The "Underclass" Debate: Views From History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Kirst, Michael W., and Richard Jung. "The Utility of a Longitudinal Approach in Assessing Implementation: A Thirteen-Year View of Title I, ESEA." in Studying Implementation: Methodological and Administrative Issues. Walter Williams. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1982.

Kuntz, Kathryn R. "A Lost Legacy: Head Start's Origins in Community Action." in Critical Perspectives on Project Head Start: Revisioning the Hope and Challenge. eds. Jeanne Ellsworth, and Lynda J. Ames. Albany, NY: University of New York Press, 1998.

LeTendre, Mary Jean. "The Continuing Evolution of a Federal Role in Compensatory Education." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 13 (1991): 328-334; 397-415.

Levin, Henry M. "A Decade of Policy Developments in Improving Education and Training for Low-Income Populations." in A Decade of Federal Antipoverty Programs: Achievements, Failures, and Lessons. ed. Robert H. Haveman. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

*Levin, Henry M. The Educationally Disadvantaged: A National Crisis. Stanford, CA: Institute for Education Finance and Governance, Stanford University, 1985.

Levin, Henry M., and Mun C. Tsang. Federal Grants and National Educational Policy. Stanford, CA: Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, 1982.

*McLaughlin, Milbrey Wallin. Evaluation and Reform: The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Title I. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Pub. Co., 1975.

———. "Implementation of ESEA Title I: A Problem of Compliance." Teachers College Record 77 (1976): 397-415.

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Miech, Edward. "The Necessary Gentleman: Francis Keppel's Leadership in Getting Education's Act Together." Master's thesis, Harvard University, Graduate School of Education, 2000.

*Mosteller, Frederick, and Moynihan, Daniel P., eds. On Equality of Educational Opportunity. 1st ed. New York: Random House, 1972.

Murphy, Jerome T. "Title I of ESEA: The Politics of Implementing Federal Educational Reform." Harvard Educational Review 41 (1971): 35-63.

Natriello, Gary, Edward L. McDill, and Aaron M. Pallas. Schooling Disadvantaged Children: Racing Against Catastrophe. New York: Teachers College Press, 1990.

Rotberg, Iris, and James Harvey. Federal Policy Options for Improving Education of Low-Income Students. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 1993.

Timar, Thomas. "Federal Education Policy and Practice: Building Organizational Capacity Through Chapter 1." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 16, no. 1 (1994): 51-66.

United States, National Advisory Council on the Education of Disadvantaged Children. Annual Report to the President and the Congress. Washington, DC: United States National Advisory Council on the Education of Disadvantaged Children. Notes: Annual reports available for many years.

*Vinovskis, Maris A. "Do Federal Compensatory Education Programs Really Work? A Brief Historical Analysis of Title I and Head Start." American Journal of Education 107, no. 3 (1999): 187-209.

———. The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

*Washington Research Project and NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. Title I of ESEA: Is It Helping Poor Children? Washington, DC: 1969.

Wayson, William. "ESEA: Decennial Views of the Revolution, The Negative Side." Phi Delta Kappan 57 (1975): 151-156.

Welner, Kevin Grant. Legal Rights, Local Wrongs: When Community Control Collides With Educational Equity. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2001.

*Zigler, Edward, and Susan Muenchow. Head Start: The Inside Story of America's Most Successful Educational Experiment. New York: Basic Books, 1992.

Zigler, Edward, and Sally J. Styfco, eds. Head Start and Beyond: A National Plan for Extended Childhood Intervention. Riverdale, NJ: Yale University Press, 1993.

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Standards, Assessments, and Accountability

Adams, Jacob E. and Michael W. Kirst. "New Demands and Concepts for Educational Accountability: Striving for Results in an Era of Excellence." eds. Joseph Murphy, and Karen Seashore Lewis. Handbook of Research on Educational Administration. 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

*Atkin, J. Myron, and Ernest R. House. "The Federal Role in Curriculum Development, 1950-1980." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 3, no. 5 (1981): 5-36.

Bracey, Gerald W. Put to the Test: An Educator's and Consumer's Guide to Standardized Testing. Bloomington, IN: Center for Professional Development & Services, Phi Delta Kappa International, 2002. Notes: revised edition.

Bunzel, John H., ed. Challenge to American Schools: The Case for Standards and Values. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Carnoy, Martin, Richard Elmore, and Leslie Santee Siskin, eds. The New Accountability: High Schools and High Stakes Testing. New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003.

*Cronbach, Lee J. Toward Reform of Program Evaluation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass and Co., 1980.

Darling-Hammond, Linda. "National Standards and Assessments: Will They Improve Education?" Teachers College Record (1994): 478-510.

*Fuhrman, Susan H. and Richard Elmore, eds. Redesigning Accountability Systems for Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 2005.

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Glass, Gene V. "Standards and Criteria." Journal of Educational Measurement 15 (1978): 237-261.

*Goertz, Margaret. "The Federal Role in an Era of Standards-Based Reform." in The Future of the Federal Role in Elementary and Secondary Education: A Collection of Papers. Washington, DC: Center for Education Policy, 2001.

*Goertz, Margaret E., Mark C. Duffy, and Kerstin Carlson Le Floch. Assessment and Accountability Systems in the 50 States, 1999-2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center, 2001.

Goslin, David. The Search for Ability: Standardized Testing in Social Perspective. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1963.

Haney, Walter, and George Madaus. "Making Sense of the Competency Testing Movement." Harvard Educational Review 48, no. 4 (1978): 462-484.

*Herman, Joan L. and Edward H. Haertel, eds. Uses and Misuses of Data for Educational Accountability and Improvement. Chicago, IL: National Society for the Study of Education, 2005.

*Jaeger, Richard M. and Carol K. Tittle, eds. Minimum Competency Achievement Testing: Motives, Models, Measures, and Consequences. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1980.

*Jennings, John F. Why National Standards and Tests?: Politics and the Quest for Better Schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998. Notes: ebook, available online.

Jones, M. Gail. The Unintended Consequences of High-Stakes Testing. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003.

Kincheloe, Joe L., and Danny Weil, eds. Standards and Schooling in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001. Notes: 3 volumes.

Kirst, Michael W. Accountability: Implications for State and Local Policymakers. Washington, DC: Information Services, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, 1990.

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*Kohn, Alfie. The Case Against Standardized Testing: Raising the Scores, Ruining the Schools. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000.

*Ladd, Helen F., ed. Holding Schools Accountable: Performance-Based Reform in Education. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1996.

McNeil, Linda M. Contradictions of School Reform: Educational Costs of Standardized Testing. New York: Routledge, 2000.

Meier, Deborah, and George Wood, eds. Many Children Left Behind: How the No Child Left Behind Act Is Damaging Our Children and Our Schools. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2004.

*Messick, Samuel, Albert E. Beaton, Frederic Lord. National Assessment of Educational Progress Reconsidered: A New Design for a New Era. Princeton, NJ: National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1983. Notes: NAEP report, no. 83-1.

Millman, Jason, ed. Grading Teachers, Grading Schools: Is Student Achievement a Valid Education Measure? Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 1997.

Murphy, Jerome, and David Cohen. "Accountability in Education: The Michigan Experience." The Public Interest 36 (1974): 53-81.

*National Council on Education Standards and Testing. Raising Standards for American Education: A Report to Congress, the Secretary of Education, the National Education Goals Panel, and the American People. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992.

National Research Council, Committee on Title I Testing and Assessment. Testing, Teaching, and Learning: A Guide for States and School Districts. eds. Richard F. Elmore, and Robert Rothman. Washington, DC: National Academy Press: U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center, 2000.

National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Achieving High Educational Standards for All: Conference Summary. eds. Timothy Ready, Christopher Edley, Jr., and Catherine E. Snow. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002.

*Nettles, Arie L., and Michael T. Nettles, eds. Measuring Up: Challenges Minorities Face in Educational Assessment. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.

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O'Day, Jennifer A. "Complexity, Accountability, and School Improvement." Harvard Educational Review 72, no. 3 (2002): 293-329.

Pellegrino, James W., Lee R. Jones, and Karen J. Mitchell, eds. Grading the Nation's Report Card: Evaluating NAEP and Transforming the Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, U.S. Department of Education. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, ERIC, 1999.

Peterson, Paul E., and Martin R. West, eds. No Child Left Behind? The Politics and Practices of School Accountability. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003.

Porter, Andrew C. "Creating a System of School Process Indicators." Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 13 (1991): 13-29.

Ravitch, Diane, ed. Debating the Future of American Education: Do We Need National Standards and Assessments?: Report of a Conference Sponsored by the Brown Center on Education Policy at the Brookings Institution. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995.

* ———. National Standards in American Education: A Citizen's Guide. Washington, DC: Brookings, 1995.

*Schwartz, Robert B., and Marion A. Robinson. "Goals 2000 and the Standards Movement." in Brookings Papers on Education Policy: 2000. ed. Diane Ravitch. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2000.

*Smith, Marshall S., and Jennifer O'Day. "Systemic School Reform." in The Politics of Curriculum and Testing: The 1990 Yearbook of the Politics of Education Association. eds. Susan Fuhrman and Betty Malen. New York: Falmer Press, 1991.

Spillane, James P. Standards Deviation: How Schools Misunderstand Education Policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.

Stotsky, Sandra, ed. What's at Stake in the K-12 Standards Wars: A Primer for Educational Policy Makers. New York: P. Lang, 2000.

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*Tyler, Ralph. "The Impact of External Testing Programs." in The Impact and Improvement of School Testing Programs. ed. Warren Findley. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1963.

United States. Congress. House. Committee on Education and the Workforce. Overview of Testing/Standards and Assessments in the States: Hearing Before the Committee on Education and the Workforce, House of Representatives, 105th Congress, Second Session, Hearing Held in Washington, DC, February 23, 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. G.P.O., 1999.

*United States. National Education Goals Panel. The National Education Goals Report: Executive Summary: Commonly Asked Questions about Standards and Assessments. Washington, DC: National Education Goals Panel, 1996.

Wiggins, Grant P. Assessing Student Performance: Exploring the Purpose and Limits of Testing. 1st ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993.

*———. Educative Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and Improve Student Performances. 1st ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

Wynne, Edward. Politics of School Accountability: Public Information About Public Schools. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1972.

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Students with Disabilities

*Ballard, Joseph, Bruce A. Ramirez, and Frederick J. Weintraub, eds. Special Education in America: Its Legal and Governmental Foundations. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, 1982.

Bartlett, Larry. "Disciplining Handicapped Students: Legal Issues in Light of Honig v. Doe." Exceptional Children 55, no. 4 (1989): 357-366.

*Berkowitz, Edward D. "A Historical Preface to the Americans With Disabilities Act." Journal of Policy History 6, no. 1 (1994): 96-119.

*Braddock, David, ed. Disability at the Dawn of the 21st Century: And the State of the States. 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002.

Brauen, Marsha L. Issues and Options in Outcomes-Based Accountability for Students With Disabilities. Rockville, MD: Westat, Inc., 1994.

Briggs, Peter G. A Perspective on Change: The Administration of Title I of ESEA. Washington, DC: The Planar Corporation, 1973.

Broadwell, C. A., and J. Walden. "Free and Appropriate Public Education After Rowley: An Analysis of Recent Court Decisions." Journal of Law and Education 17 (1988): 35-51.

Citron, Christiane H. The Rights of Handicapped Students. Denver, CO: Policy Analysis and Research, Education Commission of the States, 1982.

Cremins, James J. Legal and Political Issues in Special Education. Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas, 1983.

Gerber, Michael M., and Deborah Levine Donnerstein. "Educating All Children: Tens Years Later." Exceptional Children 56, no. 1 (1989): 17-27.

*Gilhool, Thomas K. "The Right to an Effective Education: From Brown to PL 94-142 and Beyond." in Beyond Separate Education: Quality Education for All. eds. Dorothy Kerzner Lipsky, and Alan Gartner. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Pub. Co., 1989.

Hargrove, Erwin C. "Regulation and Schools: The Implementation of Equal Education for Handicapped Children." Peabody Journal of Education 60, no. 4 (1983): 1-126.

*Hehir, Thomas, and Thomas Latus, eds. Special Education at the Century's End: Evolution of Theory and Practice Since 1970. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 1992. Notes: Reprint series, vol. 23.

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*Kauffman, James M. "The Regular Education Initiative As Reagan-Bush Education Policy: A Trickle-Down Theory of Education of the Hard-to-Teach." Journal of Special Education 23, no. 3 (1989): 256-278.

Levin, Betsy. "Equal Educational Opportunity for Special Pupil Populations and the Federal Role." West Virginia Law Review 85 (1982-1983): 159-198.

Lippman, Leopold, and I. Ignacy Goldberg. Right to Education: Anatomy of the Pennsylvania Case and Its Implications for Exceptional Children. New York: Teachers College Press, 1973.

McCarthy, M. "Minimum Competency Testing and Handicapped Students." Exceptional Children 47, no. 3 (1980): 166-173.

McClung, M., and D. Pullin. "Competency Testing and Handicapped Students." Clearinghouse Review 11 (1978): 922-927.

*McDonnell, Lorraine M., Margaret J. McLaughlin, and Patricia Morison, eds. Educating One and All: Students With Disabilities and Standards-Based Reform. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.

*McGuire, C. Kent. State and Federal Programs for Special Student Populations. Denver, CO: Education Finance Center, Education Commission of the States, 1982.

Shores, Elizabeth F. "The Arkansas Children's Colony at Conway: A Springboard for Federal Policy on Special Education." Arkansas Historical Quarterly LVII, no. 4 (1998): 408-434.

*Singer, Judith A., and John A. Butler. "The Education for All Handicapped Children Act: Schools As Agents of Social Reform." Harvard Educational Review 57, no. 2 (1987): 125-452.

Smith, Stephen W. "Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) in Special Education--From Intent to Acquiescence." Exceptional Children 57, no. 1 (1990): 6-14.

Strope, John L., and Cathy H. Broadwell. "How P.L. 94-142 Has Fared in the Supreme Court." West's Education Law Reporter 58, no. 1 (1990): 13-28.

*Turnbull, H. Rutherford. Free Appropriate Public Education: The Law and Children With Disabilities. 5th ed. Denver, CO: Love Publishing Co., 1998.

*Weintraub, Frederick J., Alan R. Abeson, and David L. Braddock. State Law & Education of Handicapped Children: Issues & Recommendations. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, 1971.

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Bilingual Education

*August, Diane, and Kenji Hakuta, eds. Improving Schools for Language Minority Children: A Research Agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.

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Baron, Dennis. The English-Only Question: An Official Language for Americans. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

*Crawford, James. Bilingual Education: History, Politics, Theory, and Practice. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Bilingual Educational Services, 1999.

*Cummings, Jim. Empowering Minority Students. Sacramento, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education, 1989.

Epstein, Noel. Language, Ethnicity, and the Schools: Policy Alternatives for Bilingual-Bicultural Education. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership, George Washington University, 1977.

García, Ofelia, and Joshua A. Fishman, eds. The Multilingual Apple: Languages in New York City. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997.

Glenn, Charles L. "What Does The National Research Council Study Tell Us About Educating Language Minority Children?" in READ Perspectives 4, no. 1-2 (1997). Notes: Web page available at http://www.ceousa.org/content/view/167/92/.

Greene, Jay. A Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Bilingual Education. Claremont, CA: Tomás Rivera Center, 1998.

*Hakuta, Kenji. Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism. New York: Basic Books, 1986.

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*Krashen, Stephen D. Under Attack: The Case Against Bilingual Education. Culver City, CA: Language Education Associates, 1996.

Krashen, Stephen. "Why Bilingual Education? ERIC Digest." Notes: Web page available at http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/bilingual.html.

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Moran, Rachel F. "The Politics of Discretion: Federal Intervention in Bilingual Education." California Law Review 76 (1988): 1249-1352.

*Ramirez, J. David, Sandra D. Yuen, and Dena R. Ramey. Final Report: Longitudinal Study of Structured Immersion Strategy, Early-Exit, and Late-Exit Transitional Bilingual Education Programs for Language Minority Children, Vol. 1 and 2. San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International, 1991.

Santiago, Isaura Santiago. "Aspira v. Board of Education Revisited." American Journal of Education 95 (1986): 149-199.

*Schneider, Susan Gilbert. Revolution, Reaction, or Reform: The 1974 Bilingual Education Act. New York: Las Americas Publishing Company, 1976.

*United States Commission on Civil Rights. Equal Educational Opportunity and Nondiscrimination for Students With Limited English Proficiency: Federal Enforcement of Title VI and Lau v. Nichols. Washington, DC: The Commission on Civil Rights, 1997. Notes: Volume 3 of the equal educational opportunity project series.

*Watras, Joseph. "Bilingual Education and the Campaign for Federal Aid." American Educational History Journal 27, no. 1 (2000): 81-87.

*Willig, Ann. "A Meta-Analysis of Selected Studies on the Effectiveness of Bilingual Education." Review of Educational Research 55, no. 3 (1985): 269-318.

Educational Accountability

Moral and Professional Accountability, Bureaucratic Accountability, Political Accountability, Market Accountability, Legal Accountability, Standards and Assessment

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Accountability has been an educational issue for as long as people have had to pay for and govern schools. The term covers a diverse array of means by which some broad entity requires some providers of education to give an account of their work and holds them responsible for their performance. These means include, among others:

* "performance by results" schemes used by the English school system in the nineteenth century, and later variations on the theme of merit pay;
* the American pattern of a school board held accountable through a local election, with the school board in turn holding a superintendent and district staff accountable;
* marketizing education through charter schools, vouchers, and the Dutch practice of using the same system for funding what Americans would call both public and private schools;
* the school inspections used in many European countries; and
* the recent rise of state testing of students in which test results are sometimes, but not always, linked to rewards or punishments for students or school staffs.

According to a 1999 article written by Jacob E. Adams and Michael W. Kirst, what these and other examples have in common is a relationship in which a "principal" holds an "agent" responsible for certain kinds of performance. The agent is expected to provide an "account" to the principal. This account describes the performance for which that agent is held responsible. It may be simply descriptive–such as the percent of children in a school passing a particular test–or it may also include an explanation for and/or a justification of the performance achieved. Often the principal sets standards for what constitutes adequate performance. The principal may reward the agent for performance that exceeds the standard or punish the agent for below standard work.

Many ideas about accountability come from the business world and are developed in the fields of economics and political science. Attention paid to accountability waxes and wanes. While it never disappears, it often receives more attention in periods of conservative ascendance. This article briefly describes six approaches to educational accountability: moral, professional, bureaucratic, political, market, and legal. These are described singly, although in practice they are usually combined. It then examines one legal strategy that has received a great deal of attention in the United States: the use of state standards and assessment to promote student, school, and district accountability. Finally, it comments on the interaction among different accountability approaches.
Moral and Professional Accountability

The principal has the least control with moral accountability where the agent's actions depend largely on an internalized obligation, reinforced with a personal sense of remorse or potential social ostracism if the obligation is not met.

Professional accountability also provides the agent with a high degree of autonomy. This form operates on the assumption that the agent on the spot–typically a teacher–has special knowledge either of general principles or of the specific situation. Either way, it is difficult for the principal to specify actions or outcomes in great detail, so the agent has a great deal of discretion. On the other hand, before taking a position, the agent must demonstrate that he or she has the required competence, values, and knowledge by taking a prescribed course of study and/or passing specialized certification examinations. Thus, the primary point of control is more at entry to the profession or the specific position rather than over performance across time. Newer developments related to professional accountability include stronger state licensure requirements and the introduction of new assessments of initial competence. These, however, are usually introduced using the authority of the state, so professional and legal accountability intertwine. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, with its advanced certification for experienced teachers, tight connections to the field of teaching, and relatively loose ties to government, is closer to the form of professionally guided licensure found in other fields.

In addition, peer review can provide further oversight for the professional. The individual teacher offers evidence of practice that is reviewed by colleagues to ensure that it meets professional standards. These standards usually refer to the use of appropriate procedures and materials, recognizing that the outcome is usually a joint product of both the teacher and the student. The difficulty with peer review is the tendency for professionals to protect their own. This is especially problematic in education where teaching is usually practiced in isolation. Nevertheless, studies of the formation of professional communities in schools have shown that, under special conditions, teachers can band together to enforce shared and challenging standards and help colleagues improve their practice.
Bureaucratic Accountability

Bureaucratic accountability is based on the superior-subordinate relationship and depends upon the formal definition of the responsibilities of positions within an organization. An educational example might be the relationship between a superintendent and a principal. Where bureaucratic accountability dominates, the superior assigns tasks to subordinates. Rules and procedures for doing the work are specified in advance, and criteria for good performance are established. The supervisor then observes the process and evaluates both the process and the results.

Formal authority alone may be used to enforce compliance, but that authority can be reinforced with incentives that are linked to performance as judged by the superior. These incentives might include promotions, salary increases, and removal from a position. Such incentives work best when agents are held accountable for work processes that are relatively easy to specify in procedures–such as teaching certain content that can be specified in a written curriculum–and that are observable by supervisors. Incentives are more difficult to use when the work is unpredictable and uncertain. There have been several efforts to increase bureaucratic authority through various forms of merit pay and related approaches. While such experimentation continues, for the most part American education has stayed with salary systems that reward experience and formal education and provide few means for superiors to reward subordinates. A major reason for the difficulty in adopting such systems has been the inability to design ones that teachers believe fairly reflect their work rather than reflecting the capricious judgments on the part of higher administrators.
Political Accountability

Political accountability in its purest form is between an elected official–such as a school board member–and the voters. As with professional accountability, the performances expected can be quite variable and hard to specify. They may include curriculum taught, the level of spending on education, or special treatment for a constituent's children. They may also change radically over time so that what the voters want at one point, they reject at another. Political accountability facilitates the lobbying of elected officials to ensure that they act on one's preferences, and it may include rewarding them by helping them get reelected. Political accountability extends to officers appointed (more or less directly) by elected representatives, especially superintendents appointed by elected school boards.

Historically, American schools have primarily used a mix of political, bureaucratic, and professional accountability. The elected school board set policy and appointed the superintendent, who held the highest position in the formal bureaucracy. Still, teachers had considerable autonomy to choose instructional methods, even if licensure standards were rarely challenging and peer accountability was the exception, not the rule.

This older system remains in place in the early twenty-first century, although it has undergone changes as some forms of site-based management have shifted the balance between bureaucratic and political accountability as well as accountability to local principals from more central ones. New approaches to teacher licensure have also increased professional accountability. The major developments, however, have been the extension of two forms of accountability that historically played a lesser role in education: market and legal accountability.
Market Accountability

With market accountability, children or parents are customers who choose schools and can shop for the one that best reflects their preferences. The discipline of competition ensures that educators respond to parent and student preferences. Market accountability has become more popular as confidence in government has waned and the public questions the costs of public provision of services. It is especially prescribed where schools have become excessively bureaucratized, politically nonresponsive, and unwilling or unable to improve their performance. American cities appear to be a ripe target for marketization because performance is so poor and improvement so slow.

The United States has always provided a small measure of choice through private and parochial schools operating alongside the public schools as well as through the housing market that allows some Americans to choose their schools. Recently, there has been a strong upsurge in interest in two new developments. One is charter schools, which are state funded but started by individuals or groups outside the public system and which then compete with public schools for students (and funding). The other is vouchers whereby tax receipts go to schools indirectly. Fixed amounts are given to parents who then use state funds (sometimes supplemented with their own money) to select the school their child will attend. In other countries, the public-private distinction is more muted or, as in New Zealand, parents are given total freedom of choice of which public school their children will attend.

Many claims have been made for various privatization approaches. It is said that they will be more efficient, increase variation in the kind of education delivered, raise test scores, increase equity, and, through competition, promote improvement of regular public schools. In most cases, it is difficult to tell what the effects of market accountability are. For instance, there have been few well-designed studies clarifying the effects of choice on achievement, at least in the American context, and those that have been conducted are much disputed. There is little evidence to suggest that competition is changing public schools in the United States, perhaps because competition is still so limited. On the other hand, there is evidence that choice programs are inequitable. The clientele of such programs tends to be more white and better off, and there tend to be fewer children with the more severe handicaps attending such schools. This is true even when schools of choice must use lotteries and other systems that preclude selecting more advantaged students and when whole countries have gone to choice systems.
Legal Accountability

Legal accountability occurs when the principal formulates rules and monitors and enforces the agent's compliance with those rules. It differs from bureaucratic accountability where the rules are formulated within an organization in that the principal is usually one level of government, such as the federal or state government, formulating rules for organizations at a lower level. Rules are usually formulated by legislatures but can be elaborated through executive regulation and formulated de novo (over again) by both the executive branch and the courts. Legal accountability often works in conjunction with professional, political, and bureaucratic accountability by establishing the broad framework within which they operate.

Legal accountability structures the inputs and resources teachers receive through funding formulas and teacher licensure regulations. The former have been highly contested and the source of a great deal of school finance litigation. The latter is a central pillar of professional accountability. Legal accountability also defines the structures and processes through which education is delivered by defining forms of governance–for instance, school boards and local control–attendance policies, desegregation orders, and building codes.

What has been new since the 1970s has been the use of legal accountability to specify, monitor, and improve the outcomes of education. Historically, states have specified outcomes indirectly by defining high school graduation requirements. Beginning in the 1970s and more often since the early 1980s, however, state governments took stronger steps. At first, these focused on testing students and increasing high school graduation requirements. More recently, there has been more emphasis on setting standards and assessing performance in light of those standards. By now, almost every American state and many foreign countries take these two linked steps. Because this approach has become so pervasive, it deserves special attention.

Standards and Assessment

A system of state standards might include the following elements:

* Content standards that set out the knowledge and skills children are expected to develop,
* Tests or assessments aligned with those content standards,
* Student performance standards that define proficient performance in terms of those assessments, and
* Rewards provided to students or schools that meet or exceed the standards and punishments or remediation activities for those that do not.

A strong system would have all four elements. The theory of action behind such a system is that the formal sanctions linked to meeting standards motivate educators and students to learn what is tested. A weak system would certainly not have the last two elements and might not have the first–many states began testing without any guidance from standards. The theory then is that the publication of test scores will motivate improvement either by appealing to professional pride or indirectly to the public, which will use political accountability to promote improvement.

While the theory is clear enough at a general level, states face difficult design issues with both technical and political dimensions related to each element of the accountability system. In practice, the politics of state standards and assessment has led to rapid, dramatic changes in state tests and related policies. Each element listed above has been problematic in some instances. For instance, content standards have become a source of frequent disputes. In science, whether or not to teach evolution has been an issue from the Scopes trial to the 1999 deliberations of the Kansas school board. Even more seemingly neutral subjects have been cause for great debate. For instance, while the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics has urged states to develop standards that focus on exploring mathematical ideas, logical reasoning, and the ability to solve non-routine problems, many people still want state standards to require memorizing mathematical facts and procedures.

The design of tests has created other problems. In the 1970s states relied primarily on multiple-choice tests, which were familiar (thereby ensuring a certain legitimacy), inexpensive, and could obtain reliable scores relatively inexpensively. During the 1990s there was a push for portfolios and performance assessments where students constructed the responses. Such assessments were viewed as more valid measures of higher standards and better guidance, and were believed to encourage teachers to adopt more challenging instructional approaches. It now appears that while performance assessments have many advantages for improving instruction, they often lack the economy and reliability required for public accountability.

Other issues relate to performance standards, including whether and how to take into account the well-known correlation between family background and performance when measuring school performance, whether to develop standards for absolute performance or improvement and–if the latter–how to measure improvement, and whether to use norm-referenced (comparison to some larger group) or criterion-referenced (comparison to an absolute level of performance) standards of performance. Developing criterion-referenced standards has been the subject of much research, but a great deal of art is still involved.

Another major issue concerns the usefulness of rewards and punishments. The theory of action behind accountability systems is that the challenge for the principal is to motivate the agent to perform in ways the principal prefers. A criticism of this theory as it applies to state assessment systems is that strong sanctions, also referred to as high stakes, will lead to "teaching to the test." This term refers to a wide range of behaviors from adjusting the curriculum to ensure that topics tested are taught before the test is given, to cheating. The term implies that something is done to raise test scores without necessarily increasing students' knowledge of the subject tested. Moreover, critics argue that more challenging forms of instruction are less likely to be adopted in high-stakes settings.

An alternative theory for improving teaching and learning in schools is that the major problem is a lack of capacity–that is, the knowledge, skills, funding, and other resources needed to perform in effective ways. Numerous capacities are needed to raise test scores by improving student knowledge. These include understanding the content taught and effective ways to teach it, the ability to analyze tests and know what performances are really called for, and the collective capacity of members of the target school in question to work together to improve itself. Even a weak accountability system can make teachers aware of the need to change practice and provide general guidance about the kinds of changes preferred. Without appropriate internal capacity or capacity-building efforts, however, movement toward more challenging instruction is not likely.

A number of studies have recently pointed to the need to align internal and external accountability. These studies suggest that schools with reasonably strong cultures develop their own internal accountability often based on peer professional accountability. Such cultures can provide strong support for improvement because they combine motivational and capacity-building efforts. Where internal and external accountability are mutually reinforcing, it appears that change is powerfully supported. Where the two are not aligned, internal accountability is likely to overwhelm external accountability or external accountability may undermine local capacity.
Coordinating Accountability Mechanisms

For all of the difficulty in designing and implementing individual accountability mechanisms, policy analysts recognize that educators face a variety of interacting mechanisms. The American educational system is highly fragmented, with authority dispersed between political and professional organizations and across local, state, and federal levels of government. Consensus on what constitutes effective education and who should be educated are difficult to achieve.

Moreover, educators are accountable to multiple constituencies. The research on internal accountability illustrates how professional accountability may reinforce or work against state assessment systems. Other work suggests that the public may not understand or support state standards and assessment. When they do not, they may protest at the state level, or local school boards may not give top priority to achieving high standards, thus undermining efforts to achieve them.

In sum, educators and policy analysts will always be concerned about educational accountability. It is hard to imagine an educational system where educators are not accountable to multiple constituencies through a variety of mechanisms. This means that educators will be accountable to different people for different things. It is becoming more and more important to design accountability mechanisms that encourage schools to provide a more effective education for all children and to orchestrate these mechanisms so that they send as consistent a message to educators as possible.

See also: CONSTITUTIONAL REQUIREMENTS GOVERNING AMERICAN EDUCATION; EDUCATIONAL POLICY; PRINCIPAL, SCHOOL; SCHOOL BOARDS; SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADAMS, JACOB E., and KIRST, MICHAEL W. 1999. "New Demands and Concepts for Educational Accountability: Striving for Results in an Era of Excellence." In Handbook of Research on Educational Administration, 2nd edition, ed. Joseph Murphy and Karen Seashore Louis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

FAIRMAN, JANET, and FIRESTONE, WILLIAM A. 2001. "The District Role in State Assessment Policy: An Exploratory Study." In From the Capitol to the Classroom: Standards-Based Reform in the States, ed. Susan H. Fuhrman. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

FIRESTONE, WILLIAM A. 1994. "Redesigning Teacher Salary Systems for Educational Reform." American Educational Research Journal 31:549–574.

FIRESTONE, WILLIAM A., and MAYROWETZ, DAVID. 2000. "Rethinking 'High Stakes': Lessons from the United States and England and Wales." Teachers College Record 102:724–749.

FULLER, BRUCE, and ELMORE, RICHARD F. 1996. Who Chooses? Who Loses? Culture, Institutions, and the Unequal Effects of School Choice. New York: Teachers College Press.

LEITHWOOD, KENNETH; EDGE, KAREN; and JANTZI, DORIS. 1999. Educational Accountability: The State of the Art. Gütersloh, Germany: Bertels-mann Foundation Publishers.

LINN, ROBERT L. 2001. Reporting School Quality in Standards-Based Accountability Systems. Los Angeles: National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.

LINN, ROBERT L., and BAKER, EVA L. 1996. "Can Performance-Based Student Assessments Be Psychometrically Sound?" In Performance-Based Student Assessment: Challenges and Possibilities, ed. Joan B. Baron and Dennis P. Wolf. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

MURPHY, JOSEPH. 1996. The Privatization of Schooling: Problems and Possibilities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

NEWMANN, FRED M.; KING, M. BRUCE; and RIGDON, MARL. 1997. "Accountability and School Performance: Implications from Restructuring Schools." Harvard Education Review 61:41–69.

SMITH, MARY LEE. 1991. "Meanings of Test Preparation." American Educational Research Journal 28:521–542.

SMITH, MARY LEE; HEINECKE, WALTER; and NOBLE, AUDREY J. 1999. "Assessment Policy and Political Spectacle." Teachers College Record 101:157–191.

WIRT, FRED, and KIRST, MICHAEL W. 1997. The Political Dynamics of American Education. Berkeley: MacCutchan Press.

WILLIAM FIRESTONE

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